Aristotelian ethics Essay Example for Free

Aristotelian ethics Essay Aristotelian ethics is focused on the search for happiness through virtue. Happiness functions as the chief and final end of man while virtue is a mediated state in between the irrational tendencies of man. The Aristotelian ethical system is primarily focused on the notion of virtue and value of the golden mean which focuses on practicality as a method of achieving happiness in opposition to self-realization. According to Aristotle, ethical knowledge is not precise compared to the study of mathematics or the sciences, but a practical discipline; that in order to be good or virtuous is not to quantify it as a study but to actually experience becoming good or virtuous. In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle’s work breaks away from the reason-centered philosophies of his predecessors namely Plato and Aristotle concerning the reason-based pursuit of the highest form of good through an empirical and a goal-centered approach. The attainment of the ‘good’ is the foundation of Aristotelian ethical principles; ethics during the context of classical Greek philosophy is primarily concerned on living the ‘good’ life through the moderation of actions. This notion of good however is different from the hedonistic perspectives concerning the happiness. Hedonism centers its beliefs on pleasure as the purpose or final end of man while Aristotle’s ethics are primarily directed to the practice and experience of life through virtue and mediation. He argues that the rational and irrational tendencies of the soul such as aspirations, desires, wants, and needs, have an ultimate end. Happiness is the final end of such tendencies; however, the process in which happiness may be achieved may go against the dictates of the soul because of subjectivity. Contrary to Platos self-existing good, happiness is practical rather than an ideal; it can be attained in the sense that an individual must experience it. The highest form of good must be desirable in itself and not to function to some other self-serving purpose. For Aristotle, happiness is found in the everyday experiences of life and work that is unique to rationalistic human soul. The individual’s purpose is to act upon what is inherently human, that is, to attain happiness through experience. The fulfillment of such end leads to the state of eudaimonia, literally meaning happiness. Eudaimonia is a state of state of mind rather than an interpretative or emotive understanding of happiness per se. In order to achieve such, Aristotle first defines the distinct parts of the human soul, the notion of virtue and its function as part of experience. Happiness is subjective to the individual since there are many forms and concepts wherein happiness can be interpreted; pleasure leads to a state of temporal and physical happiness but does not eternally reside on the individual. The multitude of perspectives concerning the attainment of a universal idea of happiness is a dilemma; since experience provides a subjective interpretation of a phenomenon, there may be no existing ‘universal’ idea. As narrated in the Ethics: â€Å"And so the man who has been educated in a subject is a good judge of that subject, and the man who has received an all-round education is a good judge in general. Hence a young man is not a proper hearer of lectures on political science; for he is inexperienced in the actions that occur in life† (Aristotle 3). For Aristotle, experience and practicality are the foundations of ethical belief. In contrast with his predecessor’s mode of ethical discipline, Aristotle argues that ethics cannot be derived from an abstract notion such as Plato’s Theory of Forms where the self-existing good remains self-evident and unchangeable. This reason-based or rationalistic approach is refuted with Aristotle’s empirical standpoint. Experience, according to Aristotle, is a unique human condition and its uniqueness provides the basis for the formation of a practical ethical system of belief. In order to understand the concept of virtue, Aristotle first divides the parts of the human soul into two parts, the rational and irrational soul which is further subdivided into three categories, namely: the vegetative, appetitive, and calculative value. The irrational ‘part’ of the human person is related to the animalistic soul or instinct (nutritive value), while the rational soul is the distinguishing factor against pure instinctive tendencies. Thus, rational nature of the soul is the definition of the human persona humans has the ability to reason (calculative/appetitive) and impose control on irrational tendencies. The normative control over irrational desires is also a part of Aristotle’s biological differentiation between man and animal. Animals rely on instinct or desire which is irrational, to maintain their survival. The control of the irrational nature (appetitive) leads to the formation of moral virtue while the perfection of the pure rationalistic soul which provides intellect and reason (calculative) is known as an intellectual virtue. Thus, moral virtue falls under the middle ground between the intellect, which regulates it, and the passions, which virtue attempts to control. Virtue is defined as â€Å"a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i. e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it† (Aristotle 35). Virtue, in accordance with experience, is based from practical knowledge. Contradicting the notion of the self-existing good, practical knowledge replaces the notion of self-existing truths. The Platonic notion of understanding these truths is through self-recognition of ignorance as an obstacle of intellectual illumination. In contrast, the practicality of experience acts as the foundation of virtue that is learned through the uniqueness of human experience. Experience is then essential in acquiring these virtues rather than acknowledge the presence of such through the affirmation of doubt. Plato’s theory as exemplified in the Allegory of the Cave calls for the self-affirmation of ‘I know nothing’ in order to determine the absolute or ideal knowledge that exists in the realm of the forms. Aristotle deviates from this rationalistic approach as he emphasizes on practicality in determining truths. Further, Aristotle explains: â€Å"since things that are found in the soul are of three kinds – passions, faculties, states of character, virtue must be one of these† (Aristotle 43) The soul as expressed in its dualistic rational and irrational parts, contain passions, faculties, and other states of character. The passions consist of the emotional either accompanied by pleasure or pain (e. g. joy, sorrow). The faculties of the soul is the capability of these emotions (e. g. being happy, joyful, etc. ), while the states of character is the middle ground in-between the emotional opposites (e. g. consumed or weakened by anger). Virtue is then a mediation of the passions which acts upon the faculties of the soul and leads to the essence on the states of character. One of the important notions in Aristotelian ethics is the notion of the Golden Mean. The golden mean separates human action (e. g. passions) into virtue and vice. The mean, in context with experience, provides the avenue of practicing virtue in the process of attaining happiness. Virtues are either at mean or in opposition (virtue and vice). Vices are further categorized either in its extreme or deficient sense while moral virtue functions as the regulating principle situates action in moderation. For example, the virtue of modesty is the mean between the vice of deficiency (shamelessness) and extreme (bashfulness). The virtue of courage is the middle ground between rashness and cowardice. The concept of the golden mean is dictated by the functions of rationality wherein behavior is formed through experience. It however cannot be quantified through a mathematical or logical proposition; meaning to eat 100 times in excess means it cannot be justified by starving oneself in 50. This ethical system is solely dependent on the conception of rationality on the part of the individual in relation to the uniqueness of experience. The value of virtue is the understanding of mediation in action rather than performing in excess or deficiency. To understand the middle ground of opposite actions leads to intellectual calmness or realization; that to be in excess and deficient leads either through temporary happiness (pleasure) or the lack of it (pain). In addition, the task of finding the middle ground in vices is a difficult task. According to Aristotle: Hence also it is no easy task to be good. For in everything it is no easy task to find the middle, e. g. to find the middle of a circle is not for everyone but for him who knows; so, too, any one can get angry – that is easy – or give or spend money; but to do this to the right person, to the right extent, at the right time with the right motive, and in the right way, that is not for everyone, nor it is easy. (Aristotle 49) To easily determine the middle ground of vices cannot be applied for the totality of every individual since the irrational soul still acts upon its instinctive nature. In relation to the Platonic challenged posed by the Theory of Forms, the attainment of the good is solely dependent on the individual to countermand the irrational passions in order to redirect the soul and purpose in attaining its final end. Plato’s challenge is focused on the breakaway from ignorance to understand the ‘ideal’ world in which the world of illusions is based from. Aristotle on the other hand, focuses on the importance of experience and practical knowledge; to know happiness means we have to experience happiness. Aristotle’s happiness is attained through the practice of virtue and the regulation of the golden mean. However, Aristotle argues: â€Å"So much, then, is plain that the intermediate state is in all things to be praised, but that we must incline sometimes towards the excess, sometimes towards the deficiency, for so shall we most easily hit the mean and what is right† (Aristotle 50). In order to understand the mean, Aristotle again notes the importance of experience. The individual must therefore experience the extreme opposites of the passions (vice) in order to determine the golden mean. For example, one cannot know the virtue of courage if one does not become a coward (deficient) or be rash (excess) in actions. It is only after experience teaches the individual the value of virtue and virtue in turn, leads to the attainment of eudaimonia in which happiness is eternal. Reference Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics (M. Ostwald, Trans. ) New York: Collier Macmillan. 1962

Their Eyes Were Wathiching God Essay -- essays research papers

Their Eyes Were Watching God   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Their Eyes Were Watching God is a story about the life of Janie Crawford and the hardships and triumphs in her three marriages, though there were many more hardships. In this essay I will share with you the setting, some characters, incidents from the plot, the theme, and point of view.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This story begins in the 1930's when Janie returns to her home in Eatonville, Florida. She then begins to recount her life story to her closest friend, Phoeby. The story then shifts on to various cities in South Florida, primarily Eatonville and the Florida Everglades.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Janie Crawford, the main character, was a fair-skinned, black woman who was admired by many. She was married three times; her first marriage was at the age of sixteen which was arranged by her grandmother. Janie displayed a streak of her independence and identity when she left her first husband, and lived alone for months after her second died. Throughout her life Janie demonstrated a courageous personality as she traveled from marriage to marriage without thinking twice.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tea Cake Woods, Janie's third husband, was a younger man in his thirties. He was a free-spirited, nomadic person, who's main source of income was derived from gambling. Tea Cake met his death when in a rabid rage, he was shot in self-defense by Janie.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ...

Depression and African-American Men Essay

First of all it is important to understand what really constitutes depression. All of us feel down from time to time perhaps based on having a â€Å"bad day†. However when feelings of sadness last for several weeks, months, or years, and are accompanied by other symptoms such as change of appetite, isolation from family and friends, sleeplessness, etc. these are symptoms of depression. In 1999 Dr. David Satcher, Surgeon General of the United States, and an African-American, released a Report on Mental Health that was a landmark moment for America. This was the first comprehensive report on the state of the nation’s mental health issued by America’s â€Å"physician-in-chief.† It is both an inventory of the resources available to promote mental health and treat mental illness, and a call to action to improve these resources. It paints a portrait of mental illness, filling the canvas with the faces of America, revealing that the effects of mental illness cut across all the nation’s dividing lines, whether gender, education, economic status, education, or race. However, the 2001 supplement to the original 1999 report indicates that it probably affects African American men more adversely than it does the general population.†Mental Health: Culture, Race and Ethnicity,† which is the title of the supplement by Dr. Satcher, says that â€Å"racial and ethnic minorities collectively experience a greater disability burden from mental illness than do whites.† The supplemental report goes even deeper in that it highlights the disparity that exists for black men in mental health as it does in relation to most health problems. For example, African-American men are more likely to live with chronic health problems, and studies show that living with chronic illnesses increases the risk of suffering from depression. In a 2002 report, â€Å"The Burden of Chronic Diseases and Their Risk Factors, † the Federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention points out that African American Men have the highest rates of prostate cancer and hypertension in the world. The report also says that black men are twice as likely as white men to develop diabetes, and suffer higher rates of heart disease and obesity. The American Cancer Society’s report entitled â€Å"Cancer Facts and Figures†, and written in 2003 found that black men are more than twice as likely as white men to die from prostate cancer. We are also more likely than others to wait until an illness reaches a serious stage before we seek treatment. Often times treatment is not sought until we are in emergency rooms, homeless shelters, or prisons. According to a report by the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation in 2003, men in general are three times less likely than women to visit a doctor, and African-American men specifically are less likely than white men to go to a doctor prior to them being in poor health. This is the case for physical ailments. When one factors in the stigma attached to mental illness, and other barriers that keep us from getting help, it is easy to see why black men are even less likely to seek treatment for depression. Yet, the nation, including the African-American community is often silent on this issue. The silence on the subject among blacks is due, in part, to our lack of vocabulary to talk about depression. We call depression â€Å"the blues† in the black community. We have been taught, at least in the past, and, to a certain extent even now, to shrug off this mental state. For many of us, it is not just a fact of life; it is a way of life. When bluesmen used to sing, â€Å"Every day I have the blues† or â€Å"It ain’t nothing but the blues† or similar words from hundreds of songs, they do more than mouth lyrics. They voice a cultural attitude. They state an accepted truth at the heart of their music: Having the blues goes along with being black in America. In addition, from the time we are young boys, black males have ingrained into us an idea of manhood that requires a silence about feelings, a withholding of emotion, and ability to bear burdens alone, and a refusal to appear â€Å"weak.† The internal pressure to adhere to this concept of masculinity only increases as we sometimes experience various forms of racism in a society that historically has sought to deny us our manhood. The internal wall that often keeps black men away from psychotherapy goes along with external barriers built just as high, if not higher. Mental health practitioners are overwhelmingly white, with the proportion of black psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychoanalysts estimated at less than three percent of the nation’s total. This would mean that even if black men were to break through the self-imposed barriers and seek professional help for mental issues, it may be difficult to find someone with whom they can build a rapport, and whom they feel can relate to them, and they can trust. This feeling of comfort is what allows a patient to reveal his most intimate secrets. As Dr. Richard Mouzon, a prominent black clinical psychologist puts it, â€Å"Many of us grow up feeling that it is dangerous to give up too much of yourself to the white man.† There’s no denying that access to mental health care is restricted for Americans in general. In private health insurance policies and government medical assistance programs, psychotherapy is too often considered a luxury rather than a necessity. It has been said often times that the only people with a guaranteed right to health care are the inmates of our jails and prisons. That is even more true of mental health care.Unfortunately, this is a right that is of marginal value; while many black men receive their first treatment for mental illness behind bars, that treatment is likely to be directed at keeping them under control rather than alleviating the effects of their illness. Our health care system assures preventative measures and early intervention for mental health problems only to the privileged, just as it does for physical health problems. The disparity is so great in minority communities that for many, mental illness receives attention only when it reaches a florid stage, in public hospitals’ emergency rooms and psychiatric wards, or worse, in its aftermath, when people with mental illness may end up behind bars and in morgues. According to a new study reported on by the † Health Behavior News Service†, jobless African-American men appear to be at a greater risk of suffering from depression. While the issue of unemployment offers at least one possible explanation for why the symptoms of depression might be experienced, more puzzling is the fact that African-American men who were making more than $80,000 per year were still at a higher risk for depression. In order to come to their conclusions, Dr. Darrell Hudson, Ph.D., and his fellow researchers carefully screened the data provided by the â€Å"National Survey of American Life.† During their analysis, they took into account how much various factors such as social class, income, education, wealth, employment, and parental education level related to depressive symptoms. â€Å"After measuring depression in a very comprehensive way, the results were not very consistent. We need to figure out as a general public: Is there a cost associated with socioeconomic position or moving in an upward trajectory?† said Dr. Hudson. For the purpose of the research 3,570 African-American men and women who experienced depressive episodes within the past year of their lives were studied. Men who made over $80,000 per year reported more symptoms of depression than those making less than $17,000 per year. However, unemployed black men were more likely to report depression during that year compared to employed men. Men who completed some college or beyond were less likely to experience depressive symptoms than those who did not complete high school. Women, on the other hand, did not appear to suffer the same rates of depression. Females who earned between $45,000 and $79,000 were less likely to report symptoms of depression than those with the least income. The study appeared in the journal â€Å"Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.† According to Dr. Hudson: â€Å"One thing could be going on with African-American men with greater incomes. The more likely they are to work in integrated settings, the more likely they are to be exposed to racial discrimination. Racial discrimination can undermine some of the positive effects of socioeconomic position like the increased benefits of more income.† Some black men who suffer from depression may think suicide is the answer. It is not. Men that become suicidal don’t realize that they are repeating the cycle, burdening their children with the same loneliness the father had endured. Their kids would grow up with the knowledge that their father had taken his life. Depression can be very paralyzing to African-Americans. This vile illness affects men from all walks of life, from the black executive to the young street hustler. In many documented cases, several socially advanced black men have suffered from depression for many years and refused to receive treatment. This is a very disturbing undercurrent. If educated, accomplished, and highly informed black men refuse to seek treatment for depression, just imagine how difficult it is for uneducated or poor black men to seek help. Some experts believe that depression is likely a key factor in a 233 percent increase in suicide in black males ages 10-14 from 1980 to 1995. According to Dr. Satcher: â€Å"Black men feel that they have to be twice as good as other people, that you can’t be weak because people will take advantage of you. Those pressures work powerfully against a black male seeking treatment for depression and other mental illnesses.† About one in four African-Americans is uninsured, compared with about 16 percent of the U.S. population overall. African-Americans are less likely to receive antidepressants, and when they do, they are more likely than whites to stop taking them. Particularly troubling to those who study and treat mental illness in black men is their disproportionately higher rates of incarceration than other racial groups. Nearly half of the U.S. prison population is black, and about 40 percent of those in the juvenile justice system is black. It is a very difficult and very serious situation for these young men and for society. Psychiatrists who work with the homeless as well as with black youth say they see dozens of black males each year head to jail or juvenile justice when they should be in treatment centers.They blame,in some form or another, depression, or other related mental illnesses. â€Å"It happens all the time and it’s very alarming,† said Dr. Raymond J. Kotwicki, Medical Director of Community Outreach Programs, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, at Emory University School of Medicine, in a recent statement. While all mental illnesses often come wrapped in some sort of stigma or negative connotation, mental illnesses in black men are even more entangled. Historical racism and current cultural biases and expectations all play a part, mental health advocates say. Nearly two-thirds of African-Americans believe that mental illness is a shortcoming that can be overcome through prayer and faith, according to a study by the National Alliance for the mentally ill. Certainly prayer and faith may be helpful to someone suffering from mental illness, but is not a replacement for treatment by a professional. The neglect of emotional disorders among men in the black community is nothing less than racial suicide.Many experts argue that the problem of depression in black America can be traced back to the time of slavery, when it was believed that blacks were unable to feel inner pain because they had no psyche. This myth has damaged generations of African-American men and their families, creating a society that sometimes has defined black men as being violent and aggressive, without considering that depression (or other related mental illnesses) might be one root cause. The consequences of untreated mental illness can be dire. And the tragedy of the worst outcomes can be no greater than when the disorder is depression, one of the most common and treatable mental illnesses. The disease is painful, and potentially fatal, but eighty percent of those who get treatment get better. Yet, quite sadly, only twenty-five percent of those who need help get it. African-American men are especially prone to put ourselves in mortal danger because we readily embrace the belief that we can survive depression by â€Å"riding out† the illness and allowing it to run its course. The internal walls we build to keep out the world, along with the walls that society sometimes builds to isolate us, cut us off from the help we need. So we suffer, and we suffer needlessly. Please do not be ashamed of seeking help if you feel that you are suffering from depression, or any mental illness. There are very likely resources right in your own city or town such as a county Mental Health Center, even if you are uninsured. Those who are insured may choose a private hospital or psychiatrist, but don’t hesitate to get help. One resource that is available would be to call 1-877-331-9311, or 1-877-568-6230 to talk to a specialist at any time. This could change your life immensely, and could indeed save your life.

Alcohol Hangover Biology, Physiology and Preventions

Alcohol can have various biological and behavioral effects on the body. People who consume alcohol to intoxication often experience what is known as a hangover. Hangovers result in unpleasant physical and mental symptoms including fatigue, headache, dizziness, and vertigo. While there are some suggested treatments to curb the effects of a  hangover, the best way to prevent a hangover from occurring is not to consume alcohol. Since the effects of most hangovers subside after 8 to 24 hours, time is the most effective remedy for alcohol hangover symptoms. Alcohol Hangover Hangovers are a frequent, though unpleasant, experience among people who drink to intoxication. Despite the prevalence of hangovers, however, this condition is not well understood scientifically. Multiple possible contributors to the hangover state have been investigated, and researchers have produced evidence that alcohol can directly promote hangover symptoms through its effects on urine production, the gastrointestinal tract, blood sugar concentrations, sleep patterns, and biological rhythms. In addition, researchers postulate that effects related to alcohols absence after a drinking bout (i.e., withdrawal), alcohol metabolism, and other factors (e.g., biologically active, non-alcohol compounds in beverages; the use of other drugs; certain personality traits; and a family history of alcoholism) also may contribute to the hangover condition. Few of the treatments commonly described for hangover have undergone scientific evaluation. Key Takeaways: Alcohol Hangover People who drink alcohol to intoxication may experience a hangover. Symptoms of a hangover include fatigue, headache, increased sensitivity to light and sound, red eyes, muscle aches, and thirst.Alcohol contributes to a hangover by causing electrolyte imbalances and dehydrtion, gastrointestinal disturbances, low blood sugar, and disruption of biological rhythms.Time is the best treatment for a hangover as symptoms diminish over 8 to 24 hours. The best cure for a hangover is prevention. A hangover is less likely to occur if a person drinks small, nonintoxicating amounts of alcohol.Consuming fruits and fruit juices is reported to reduce hangover intensity. Consuming bland foods with complex carbohydrates (toast) helps counter low blood sugar and relieves nausea.Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (ibuprofen) help to reduce alcohol associated headache and muscle aches. Antacids help alleviate nausea and gastritis. What Is a Hangover? A hangover is characterized by the constellation of unpleasant physical and mental symptoms that occur after a bout of heavy alcohol drinking. Physical symptoms of a hangover include fatigue, headache, increased sensitivity to light and sound, redness of the eyes, muscle aches, and thirst. Signs of increased sympathetic nervous system activity can accompany a hangover, including increased systolic blood pressure, rapid heartbeat (i.e., tachycardia), tremor, and sweating. Mental symptoms include dizziness; a sense of the room spinning (i.e., vertigo); and possible cognitive and mood disturbances, especially depression, anxiety, and irritability. Alcohol Hangover Symptoms Constitutional: fatigue, weakness, and thirstPain: headache  and muscle achesGastrointestinal: nausea, vomiting, and stomach painSleep and biological rhythms: decreased sleep, decreased REM(rapid eye movements), and increased slow-wave sleepSensory: vertigo and sensitivity to light and soundCognitive: decreased attention and concentrationMood: depression, anxiety, and irritabilitySympathetic hyperactivity: tremor, sweating, and increased pulse and systolic blood pressure The particular set of symptoms experienced and their intensity may vary from person to person and from occasion to occasion. In addition, hangover characteristics may depend on the type of alcoholic beverage consumed and the amount a person drinks. Typically, a hangover begins within several hours after the cessation of drinking, when a persons blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is falling. Symptoms usually peak about the time BAC is zero and may continue for up to 24 hours thereafter. Overlap exists between hangover and the symptoms of mild alcohol withdrawal (AW), leading to the assertion that hangover is a manifestation of mild withdrawal. Hangovers, however, may occur after a single bout of drinking, whereas withdrawal occurs usually after multiple, repeated bouts. Other differences between hangover and AW include a shorter period of impairment (i.e., hours for hangover versus several days for withdrawal) and a lack of hallucinations and seizures in hangover. People experiencing a hangover feel ill and impaired. Although a hangover may impair task performance and thereby increase the risk of injury, equivocal data exist on whether hangover actually impairs complex mental tasks. Direct Alcohol Effects Drinking too much alcohol can damage your liver.   SCIEPRO/Science Photo Library/Getty Images Alcohol may directly contribute to a hangover in several ways, including the following: Dehydration and Electrolyte Imbalance: Alcohol causes the body to increase urinary output (i.e., it is a diuretic). Alcohol promotes urine production by inhibiting the release of a hormone (i.e., antidiuretic hormone, or vasopressin) from the  pituitary gland. In turn, reduced levels of antidiuretic hormone prevent the  kidneys  from reabsorbing (i.e., conserving) water and thereby increase  urine  production. Additional mechanisms must be at work to increase urine production, however, because antidiuretic hormone levels increase as BAC levels decline to zero during hangover. Sweating, vomiting, and diarrhea also commonly occur during a hangover, and these conditions can result in additional fluid loss and electrolyte imbalances. Symptoms of mild to moderate dehydration include thirst, weakness, dryness of mucous membranes, dizziness, and lightheadedness - all commonly observed during a hangover. Gastrointestinal Disturbances: Alcohol directly irritates the stomach and intestines, causing inflammation of the stomach lining (i.e., gastritis) and delayed stomach emptying, especially when beverages with a high alcohol concentration (i.e., greater than 15 percent) are consumed. High levels of alcohol consumption also can produce  fatty liver, an accumulation of fat compounds called triglycerides and their components (i.e., free fatty acids) in liver cells. In addition, alcohol increases the production of gastric acid as well as pancreatic and intestinal secretions. Any or all of these factors can result in the upper abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting experienced during a hangover. Low Blood Sugar: Several alterations in the metabolic state of the liver and other  organs  occur in response to the presence of alcohol in the body and can result in low  blood  sugar levels (i.e., low glucose levels, or hypoglycemia). Alcohol metabolism leads to fatty liver (described earlier) and a buildup of an intermediate metabolic product, lactic acid, in body fluids (i.e., lactic acidosis). Both of these effects can inhibit glucose production. Alcohol-induced hypoglycemia generally occurs after binge drinking over several days in alcoholics who have not been eating. In such a situation, prolonged alcohol consumption, coupled with poor nutritional intake, not only decreases glucose production but also exhausts the reserves of glucose stored in the liver in the form of glycogen, thereby leading to hypoglycemia. Because glucose is the primary energy source of the  brain, hypoglycemia can contribute to hangover symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and mood disturbances. Diabetics are particularly sensitive to the alcohol-induced alterations in blood glucose. However, it has not been documented whether low blood sugar concentrations contribute to hangover symptomatically. Disruption of Sleep and Other Biological Rhythms: Although alcohol has sedative effects that can promote sleep onset, the fatigue experienced during a hangover results from alcohols disruptive effects on sleep. Alcohol-induced sleep may be of shorter duration and poorer quality because of rebound excitation after BACs fall, leading to insomnia. Furthermore, when drinking behavior takes place in the evening or at night (as it often does), it can compete with sleep time, thereby reducing the length of time a person sleeps. Alcohol also disrupts the normal sleep pattern, decreasing the time spent in the dreaming state (i.e., rapid eye movement [REM] sleep) and increasing the time spent in deep (i.e., slow-wave) sleep. In addition, alcohol relaxes the throat muscles, resulting in increased snoring and, possibly, periodic cessation of breathing (i.e., sleep apnea). Alcohol interferes with other biological rhythms as well, and these effects persist into the hangover period. For example, alcohol disrupts the normal 24-hour (i.e., circadian) rhythm in body temperature, inducing a body temperature that is abnormally low during intoxication and abnormally high during a hangover. Alcohol intoxication also interferes with the circadian nighttime secretion of  growth hormone, which is important in bone growth and  protein  synthesis. In contrast, alcohol induces the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the  pituitary gland, which in turn stimulates the release of  cortisol, a hormone that plays a role in  carbohydrate  metabolism and stress response; alcohol thereby disrupts the normal circadian rise and fall of cortisol levels. Overall, alcohols disruption of circadian rhythms induces a jet lag that is hypothesized to account for some of the deleterious effects of a hangover. Alcohol Remedies Medication can be used to relieve some symptoms of alcohol hangover.   Jamie Grill Photography/Getty Images Many treatments are described to prevent  hangover, shorten its duration, and reduce the severity of its symptoms, including innumerable folk remedies and recommendations. Few treatments have undergone rigorous investigation, however. Conservative management offers the best course of treatment. Time is the most important  component,  because hangover symptoms will usually abate over 8 to 24 hours. Drink Small Amounts of Alcohol: Attentiveness to the quantity and quality of alcohol consumed can have a significant effect on  preventing  hangovers. Hangover symptoms are less likely to occur if a person drinks only small, nonintoxicating amounts. Even among people who drink to intoxication, those who consume lower amounts of alcohol appear less likely to develop a hangover than those who drink higher amounts. Hangovers have not been associated with drinking beverages with a low alcohol content or with drinking nonalcoholic beverages. The type of alcohol consumed also may have a significant effect on reducing hangover. Alcoholic beverages that contain few congeners (e.g., pure ethanol, vodka, and gin) are associated with a lower incidence of  hangover  than are beverages that contain a number of  congeners  (e.g., brandy, whiskey, and  red wine). Eat Foods Containing Fructose: Other interventions may reduce the intensity of a hangover but have not been systematically studied. Consumption of fruits, fruit juices, or other fructose-containing foods is reported to decrease hangover intensity, for example. Also, bland foods containing complex  carbohydrates, such as toast or crackers, can counter low  blood  sugar levels in people subject to hypoglycemia and can possibly relieve nausea. In addition, adequate sleep may ease the fatigue associated with  sleep deprivation, and drinking nonalcoholic beverages during and after  alcohol consumption  may reduce alcohol-induced dehydration. Medications: Certain medications may provide symptomatic relief for hangover symptoms. For example, antacids may alleviate nausea and gastritis. Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (e.g., ibuprofen or naproxen) may reduce  the headache  and muscle aches associated with a hangover but should be used cautiously, particularly if upper abdominal pain or nausea is present. Anti-inflammatory medications are themselves gastric irritants and will compound alcohol-induced gastritis. Although acetaminophen is a common alternative to aspirin, its use should be avoided during the hangover period, because alcohol metabolism enhances acetaminophens toxicity to the liver. Caffeine: Caffeine (often taken as coffee) is commonly used to counteract the fatigue and malaise associated with the hangover condition. This traditional  practice,  however, lacks scientific support. Source Alcohol Hangover: Mechanisms and Mediators. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh22-1/toc22-1.htm.